Glossary of Wine Varietals - descriptions of the worldwide grapes used to make wines.

Of the approximately 10,000 documented grape varieties; only about 180 are made into wine with any frequency. Each different varietal imparts a specific flavor profile to the finished wine. But in terms of wine labeling, varietal names are most often found on New World wines--those from Australia, America, New Zealand or South Africa. Of course, many of these same grapes were successful in the Old World as well. However, in Europe, labeling takes a different approach. One issue was, historically, the same grape variety tended to be called by different names in different places, which obviously created confusion. In addition, stylistically, fruit flavors tend receive to less emphasis from Old World winemakers, who place primary importance upon capturing the "terroir", the subtle aroma and flavor nuances generated by soil type, climate, or region where the grapes were grown.

And so, noting where a particular wine came from, rather than what the particular grape was, became the labeling convention for Old World wines. For example, a wine labeled "Montrachet", is from a great vineyard in Burgundy. It is also made from Chardonnay grapes, but you won't find that on the label traditionally.  In the New World, varietal labeling is used.  Winemaking styles tend to "put the fruit forward", which means the taste of the grape is of primary importance. Labeling the wines according to their varietals helps the consumer know what to expect when they select a Chardonnay or a Zinfandel.

For a U.S. wine label to bear the name of the variety, it must be made with no less that 75% of that grape variety in the total blend.

Hybrid Varietals are the result of the union of two varieties of different species.  The production of hybrid varietals was critical in solving the Phylloxera problem which has been devastating vineyards worldwide for centuries.

In the late 19th Century European vineyards were infested by the root louse named Phylloxera that puts grapevines into decline, eventually killing them. Viticulturists discovered that grafting quality European vinifera varietals onto phylloxera-resistant native American rootstocks provided a solution. In turn, these hybrids produced plants that could withstand harsh American winters, humidity, short growing seasons, pests and other stressful growing conditions-and make quality wine.

The EU bans using hybrid grapes in the production of "quality" wines, due to their frequently complex ancestry and suspicion of the grapes' inferiority.  However, not all hybrids make inferior wines. 

Some important white hybrids include Seyval Blanc, grown mostly in the Northeastto produce wines high in acid and lean, with green apple and grapefruit flavors. Aurore is similar white hybrid, but with slightly less pedigree. As to off-dry whites, Vidal Blanc is perhaps the best for dessert wines, with forward Riesling-like fruit, high acid and the capability to produce reasonably high sugar levels. Dutchess is a fairly foxy variety, usually made sweet.

Red varietals include Chambourcin, a fruity, deep-colored, full-flavored slightly herbaceous wine that shows great potential. De Chaunac, America's most widely planted red Hybrid, is an early ripener that drinks young and fresh. Baco Noir is a non-foxy, fruity, leafy, easy drinking wine; Chancellor, a light, simple and fruity drink. Leon Miller is an early ripening, dark colored, high sugar, somewhat foxy wine, often used in blends for its color. Cynthiana, also known as Norton, is the final important Hybrid.

Crossed Varietals are the result of breeding two different vine varietals of the same species (usually Vitus Vinifera European species as opposed to Vitus Labrusca American species or lesser-known others).  For example, Cabernet Sauvignon is now known to be a cross of Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon Blanc.  Müller Thurgau is a well known German grape, produced from a cross of Sylvaner and Riesling in an attempt to produce an early-ripening Riesling-style grape for use in cooler climate areas.

Native Varietals are the backbone of American winemaking history, Vitus Labrusca grapes are not held in such high esteem now because of the success in creating American wines from previously old world (Vitus Vinifera) grapes. There was a time, however, that without these grapes there would have been no vines that would survive the epidemic of phylloxera in Europe, or the frosts, humidity, diseases, short growing seasons and harsh winters in America.

The following grapes were, for the most part, growing wild here when the first explorers arrived, and are still being made into wine today:

• Niagara, an American crossing, is grown throughout the East and the Midwest.
• Catawba is the wine that saved the Midwestern grape growing enterprise of the last century and can be made dry or sweet to potentially agreeable results.
• Concord is well known for being made into sweet, sparkling and even altar wine.
• Cayuga is a relatively new and rather exciting grape developed in the Finger Lakes of New York.
• Blanc du Bois and Stover are experimental Muscadine/Labrusca hybrids grown in the Southeast and made into light and refreshing wines.
• Scuppernong, a type of Muscadine, the original vine of the Middle Atlantic states. It produces an amber/golden wine that has a very distinctive and peculiarly strong, dominant, almost pungent taste.

A Vintage Chart  is a guide to help guide choices of what years of wines to buy, from what areas, and at what point they will tend to be at their optimum drinking time. There are a many wine vintage charts available, ranging from basic to comprehensive, published by anyone with an opinion on the topic!  Wine Squire.com maintains an excellent, easily printable chart as well as links to many others.  They explain the term "vintage":

"In the world of wine, the term 'vintage' means the year that the grapes were harvested. For a given wine-growing region, the weather and growing conditions for the year are evaluated by various 'experts' (winegrowers, winemakers, critics, etc.) and the learned opinions are compiled into a 'score' which indicates the overall promise for that region's vintage. A higher score suggests that the winemakers will be more likely to produce wines of higher quality.

In the cases of Champagne and Port however, only the years which are 'declared' by most producers are recognized as 'vintage' and will feature the year of grape harvest on the bottle.

Vintage charts organize and display the scores for each region rated. The better charts break down each country and region into subregions. Some charts are based on a 100-point scale, others on a 10-point. Sometimes the numbers are replaced with symbols that indicate if a wine is ready to be drunk, or if it needs to age. There is a wide range of chart styles, so be sure to read the key (if provided). The charts are typically reviewed and updated on a yearly basis, and any score is subject to change based on real-world tasting notes as the vintages age. 

It is important to remember that vintage charts are general in nature. It is a truism that "some good wine is made in every bad year; likewise, some bad or mediocre wines are made even in great years". With this in mind, you may find them most useful when considering aged wines, such as those available at auctions, or even when choosing from unfamiliar wines on a restaurant wine list. A comparison of red Bordeaux, for example, from year to year may help one select a finer wine from the better vintages, rather than risk a disappointment from the more mediocre vintages."

• Wine Squire.com's Vintage Wine Ratings Chart 

• Wine on the Web's Vintage Charts

• Vintage-Charts.com

Find out more about

• The History of Winemaking

• The Winemaking Process

• Home Winemaking

The History of Winemaking

Wine has been around for thousands of years. From ancient civilizations to modern times, wine has been produced and enjoyed by many, from peasants to kings.

Beginnings
Evidence of wine production dates as far back as 6000BC, to early Mesopotamian culture. The Mesopotamians were the first known people to cultivate grapes.

The ancient Egyptians recorded the harvest of grapes on stone tablets and the walls of their tombs. The Egyptians loved wine and even imported what they could not grow. The Egyptian Pharaohs were especially fond of wine. Some of them were even buried with bottles of wine, in order to make their journey to the underworld more tolerable. Wine was a very social drink in Ancient Egypt and great importance was given to its production and consumption.

The Egyptians were not the first to grow wine, but they were the first to record the process of wine making and celebrate its values.

Wine in Ancient Greece and Rome
Wine in ancient Greece was praised and immortalized by her poets, historians and artists. Wine also played a role in the religion of Ancient Greece, associated with the god Dionysus.

Like the Egyptians, the ordinary citizens did not consume wine. It was considered a privilege of the upper classes. Wealthy Greeks even invented a popular wine tossing game that consisted of throwing the last few mouthfuls of wine from a guest's cup into the air. The object was to hit a delicately balanced dish on a pole with the "tossed" wine.

During the time of the Roman Empire, the production of wine spread throughout Europe. At this time, wine also became available to the common citizens. Some cities even built bars on almost every street in order to promote wine.

Roman wine was said to be sweet rather than dry. Pure red or white wines were almost unthinkable in Ancient Rome. The Romans believed that flavoring was more important than the original taste of the wine. They added such flavors as fermented fish sauce, garlic and onion to their wines.

The Dark Ages
During the Dark Ages wine production was mainly kept alive through the efforts of monasteries. As the Church extended their monasteries, they began to develop some of the finest vineyards in Europe. Although most wine production was done in monasteries, some religious believers diluted their wine with water in order to make it "safer" for them to drink.

Due to the fact that most of Europe lacked a reliable source of drinking water, wine was still considered to be an important part of everyday diet. During this time, people also begin to favor stronger, heavier wines.

England began importing wine from Germany when they lost Bordeaux to the French in the 14th century. Portugal also shipped wine to England, which helped keep the two countries on friendly terms.

Shakespeare's Time
During Shakespeare's time, wine was very much a staple of the diet. Beer was a favored alternative, yet wine enjoyed more attention. It was during this time, when wine began to diversify and consumers began to value the concept of variety in their drinking. Citizens of Shakespeare's age clearly enjoyed drinking wine and began to discuss its virtues and pitfalls with greater enthusiasm than in the previous centuries.

By the end of Shakespeare's life, an abundant supply of fresh drinking water was available to London for the first time, and so the wine industry was moved into a new age.

17th and 18th Century
The wine industry saw a brief decline in the 17th century. Politics and religious propaganda did little to promote the drinking of wine for pleasure. Wine also had to face the rival of a clean and readily available supply of drinking water. Wine was no longer needed as a major part of the daily diet.

Despite all of this, many new developments helped the wine industry keep its popularity. The invention of better glass making, the cork and other accessories, as well as better methods of production helped wine through the 17th century.

Wine went through several changes during the 18th century. England witnessed many of these due to its political relations with France. Because of the strained relations with France, the English were without a major source of wine and had to look elsewhere for their drink. They turned to Portugal, Holland, and South Africa for their wine.

Despite their strained relations with the British, the French wine industry soared in the 18th century. Many people feel that this was when the wines of Bordeaux really began to flourish. The merchants who frequented the Bordeaux region came from Holland, Germany, Ireland and even Scandinavia. As a result, Bordeaux was able to successfully trade wine for coffee and other much sought after items from the New World, which helped cement the role of wine in the growing industry of world trade.

19th Century
During the early 19th century, when the British were fighting the Napoleonic Wars, they were unable to get a steady supply of wine from France, and instead turned to Portugal. Port became the favored wine in England during this time.

Champagne also gained favor in the 19th century. The French widow Nicole-Barbe Clicquot-Ponsardin is credited with making Champagne the celebrity wine of the world. She found easier ways to remove the sediment from Champagne and replaced it with wine, sugar, and brandy. She also organized the production of Champagne so that it could be done in an assembly line, making this beverage truly "modern."

The wines of New World began challenging those of the Old World in the 19th century. Thomas Jefferson was convinced that the lack of fine wines in America was driving his fellow citizens to drink too much hard liquor. This idea carried on after his death and influenced the way Americans viewed wine. Ohio was the first region in America to successfully grow grapes for wine. Its glory soon faded, however, and California soon took its place.

Although the 19th century is considered to be the golden age of wines for the Bordeaux and Burgundy regions, it was not without tragedy. Around 1863 many of the French grapevines began to suffer from a mysterious disease. It was soon discovered that this disease was the caused by the Phylloxera aphid. Some French winemakers at this time, moved to the Rioja region in northern Spain, and taught the Spaniards to make wine from local Tempranillo grapes.

Modern Times
The last 90 years have seen a revolution in the wine industry. The scientific background of wine making has developed greatly, allowing for many things that were once impossible to be accomplished. An example of this would be refrigeration. Before the 1940s, wine was supplied to people according to their geographic location. After the development of refrigeration, it was easier for wineries to control the temperature of their fermentation process. This enabled high quality wines to be produced in hot climates.

Machines that harvest grapes more quickly have allowed vineyards to become larger and more efficient. Grapes can also be harvested during day or night, allowing vineyards to control the temperature and climate when grapes are harvested.

Modern wine makers can now achieve total control of every stage of wine making, from harvesting, and crushing to bottling. Though recent advances in technology have benefitted the wine industry, they have also led to the temptation to produce more wine at the expense of quality. Wine makers face the challenge of producing wine for a larger market without losing the character and individual flavor of their wines.

More countries are producing more varieties of wine than ever before. Advances in technology will ensure that this trend will continue, with more countries producing more wine, and better wine.

The Winemaking Process

How Grapes Are Grown

Grape vines can be grown in a wide variety of soil types and climatic conditions. They are a hardy plant and are usually grown from cuttings. To successfully grow a vine involves the construction of a trellis system, irrigation, soil amelioration (to fix soil problems), planting, training to the trellis, removal of buds and leaves from the trunk, weed control, pruning, pest and disease control, harvesting and a great deal of time, patience and maybe a little luck as well.

Grapes are largely grown on a support structure known as a trellis. The trellis may be as simple as a single post-end assembly with a single wire or it can be quite elaborate with multiple wires.

Vines can be grown on their own roots or grafted to another variety's root system (rootstock). Rootstocks are chosen for their ability to be tolerant or resistant to moisture, drought, disease, pests or any variety of potential problems. Vines are usually hand-planted.

Winter brings on dormancy in the vines and at this stage they can be pruned to improve the shape and make the vine more productive. The fruitfulness of the vine is determined in the previous growing season and the amount of potential bunches is related to the number of buds left after pruning.

The grapevine has the ability to self-regulate and the environmental factors of a vineyard will determine how much fruit is produced and ripened. Vine balance can be calculated with a mathematical equation.

Shortly after budburst in spring groups of flowers are produced and the fruit clusters develop from these. The grape berry is made up of pulp, seeds and skin that has a thin, waxy layer with many millions of native yeast cells.

As the berries grow they are hard and contain mainly grape acids (malic and tartaric acids). As the grapes ripen they start to soften and change color. This is called veraison. Sugar, flavor and water content starts to increase and acids decline.

At this stage the major components of the grape berry are:

• Water (70-85%)
• Carbohydrates – Glucose and fructose are the main two sugars
• Alcohols – Virtually nil but may be present in trace quantities in damaged or botrytis-affected fruits
• Acids – Tartaric and malic acids are the main two. Citric, lactic, succinic and acetic acid are present in minor quantities
• Colors and Flavor – Only in trace amounts but have a huge affect on the sensory qualities of the grape

Ripeness and harvest is determined by the winemaker taking into consideration the style of wine to be made. The acid content is not a major concern as this can be added to the wine, usually in the form of tartaric acid. The main determinant is color, flavor and sugar level. Neutral juice of low color and sugar will not produce an interesting wine.

Harvesting Grapes

Grapes are harvested either by hand or mechanically.

• Mechanical harvesters shake the grapes from the vine, store them and then unload them at the winery or to transport tanker. This enables grapes to be harvested quickly, in the cool of the night and with little labor. However, fruit can be damaged allowing oxidation and microbial activity, material other then grapes, especially leaves will be collected and poor weather can delay access to the vineyard.
• Grapes are harvested by hand using shears shaped like pointed scissors. The grapes are usually collected in small buckets, and then transferred to large bins. This method ensures little damage is done to the grapes and the pickers are able to reject unripe or diseased fruit. However, harvest can only occur during daylight when the fruit is warm and labor costs are high.

White wines

Winemaking can be divided into four phases:

1. Harvesting fruit and ensuring it is in optimum condition.

2. Fermenting the grapes into wine.

3. Clarification and stabilizing the wine.

4. Ageing.

Making white wine:

1. After harvest grapes are removed from the bunch stem and gently pushed through rollers to split the berries and release the juice.
2. After the grapes have been through the crusher/de-stemmer, the must - a combination of juice, skins and seeds - is pumped to the press to separate the juice from the skins.
3. The juice is extracted at the press and cooled while the skins, stems and seeds are discarded.
4. The cold juice is allowed to settle and then clear juice is decanted off the residue before it is fermented. White wine is made by fermenting clarified juice.
5. Winemakers manage the fermentation by controlling parameters such as temperature and the pressing technique. Fermentation takes place in tanks, usually large stainless steel tanks. Cold stabilization of a wine may also take place here. Tanks are fitted with a cooling jacket through which coolant is pumped to export heat from the ferment. Vats or barrels constructed from oak can also be used to ferment wine. Chardonnay is sometimes barrel fermented for part of the finished blend to add greater dimension and complexity.
6. Winemakers clarify wine by fining, racking and filtration. Wine is stabilized by removing excessive protein and potassium hydrogen tartrate. These materials must be removed to prevent them from precipitating out of the wine later. After this the wine will be stable and the winemaker can be reasonably confident the wine will remain clear and bright after bottling.
7. As the wine ages it develops “bouquet”. Wine acids react with alcohols to produce volatile esters and during bulk storage oxidation slowly changes many wine ingredients. After the wine is bottled, oxygen is no longer available, and a different type of ageing begins to take place.

Red wines

 

Winemaking can be divided into four phases:

1.                  Harvesting fruit and ensuring it is in optimum condition.

2.                  Fermenting the grapes into wine.

3.                  Clarification and stabilizing the wine.

4.                  Ageing.

Making red wine:

1. Red wine grapes have colorless juice. The red color is in the grape skins and winemakers leave the juice in contact with the skins for a time to extract the color.
2. After harvest grapes are removed from the bunch stem and gently pushed through rollers to split the berries and release the juice.
3. After the grapes have been through the crusher/de-stemmer the must, a combination of juice, skins and seeds is fermented for several days. Winemakers manage the fermentation by controlling parameters such as temperature and the pressing technique. Fermentation takes place in tanks, usually large stainless steel tanks.
4. The fermented must is then pumped to the press to separate the juice from the skins.
5. Winemakers clarify wine by fining, racking and filtration. Wine is stabilized by removing excessive protein and potassium hydrogen tartrate. These materials must be removed to prevent them from precipitating out of the wine later.
6. The wine is then aged. Red wine can then spend anything from a few weeks to a few years in either stainless steel or oak where it is racked and fined several times prior to bottling. As the wine ages it develops "bouquet". Wine acids react with alcohols to produce volatile esters and during bulk storage oxidation slowly changes many wine ingredients. After the wine is bottled, oxygen is no longer available, and a different type of ageing begins to take place. Some premium red wines can spend several additional years in bottle before being released.

 

Sparkling wines

 

Winemaking can be divided into four phases:

There are four different processes commonly used in the manufacture of sparkling wines.

1.                  Méthode Champenoise

2.                  Transfer system

3.                  Charmat

4.                  Carbonation

There are 3 general groups of grapes used to make French sparkling wines (elsewhere in the world winemakers are experimenting and traditionally use a multitude of other grapes):

1. Pinot Meunier, Pinot Blanc, Sultana and Trebbiano. These produce delicate fruit styles that require high acid. Generally they are early maturing wines that are not generally given any wood treatment in the base wine.
2. Pinot Noir and Ondenc. Naturally high in acid, richly flavored with a neutral bouquet. Base wines are often aged in wood. Bottle maturation can be for three or more years.
3. Chardonnay and Semillon. High natural acid and a light perfumed bouquet. The base wines are sometimes given wood ageing and have a medium body.

 

1. Méthode Champenoise

This is the traditional process for the making of champagne. Méthode Champenoise is an involved and labor intensive process which accounts for higher prices for these wines.

 

A base wine is made, from grapes that are high in acid and flavor with adequate sugar levels, in the same manner as for a dry white table wine. This base wine is then bottled and yeast and sugar is added to made to activate a secondary fermentation. This process takes between six months and many years depending on the quality and the style of wine being made. The bottles are continually turned (riddled) and stored throughout this period in a semi-inverted position to allow the lees (dead yeast cells) to settle in the neck of the bottle.

 

At the end of this fermentation the neck of the bottle is frozen and the frozen lees are removed (disgorged. Additions of liqueur, sweetener, brandy spirit or other are made and the bottles are re-corked and wired. The finished wines are then ready for cellaring or sale.

 

2. Transfer system

This is very similar to the Méthode Champenoise except the wine's second fermentation takes place in upright bottles with crown seals. At the end of fermentation the crowns are pierced under pressure and the wine is transferred to bottles and corked.

 

The quality of wine from this process is no less than that produced via Méthode Champenoise. It is ultimately the quality of the grape, the winemaking and indeed the entire process that determines the final wine quality. The advantage of this system is that the end wine is more uniform in its quality and involves less labor through mechanization. Wines produced by this method are less expensive to produce than those by Méthode Champenoise.

 

3. Charmat

In this case secondary fermentation takes place in a large stainless steel pressure tank. At the end of fermentation the wine is transferred to the bottles under pressure and corked.

 

The qualities of this wine are not as complex as that of the previous two processes due to less contact with the lees. The advantage is that the process can be more automated than the others and the wine is cheaper to produce.

 

4. Carbonation

This is the method for making low-cost sparkling wines. It is a simple process where the wine is fermented to the desired style and then bottled and carbonated (addition of carbon dioxide).

There are many different styles of winemaking beyond the mere creation of Alcohol from Sugar.  Select these topics to find information about:
 

Madeira - a link to www.madeirawineguide.com with extensive information.

Port Wines - a PDF file with all of your questions answered.

Sherry - Perhaps the best starting point for understanding Sherry is the official website of the Jerez region!

Sparkling Wines - A link to a comprehensive website for true Champagne.  More basic coverage of sparkling wines of all types can be found at http://www.winepros.org/wine101/sparkling.htm. 

Sake - Begin a journey of learning about Japanese rice wines at http://www.chiff.com/wine/asia/japan.htm or read our simplified Sake brochure.

Ice Wines.

There are a ton of great sites about home winemaking.  Visit these links for great information!

Winemaking Home Page

Wine making Made Easy by GrapeEscape.com

Click here for an article About Barrels and Cooperage